The operating principle of the X-ray unit is based on. X-ray machines
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
federal state autonomous educational institution
higher education
"NATIONAL RESEARCH
TOMSK POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY"
Laboratory work No. 1
Supervisor: professor of the departmentMMS
Kulkov Sergey Nikolaevich
Students of group 4B21:
Kondratenko A.I.
Proskurnikov G.V.
Dronov A.A.
Tomsk, 2015
Target: get acquainted, study, and also gain skills in X-ray analysis of powders.
X-ray machine device
One of the most effective methods for studying the structure of crystalline substances is radiography.
Radiography is divided into 2 types:
1. X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD);
2. X-ray phase analysis (XRF).
The first method is the most general and informative and allows you to unambiguously determine all the details of the crystal structure (atomic coordinates, etc.). The object of research in RStA is a single crystal. The second method allows you to identify the substance and determine some parameters of the crystal structure. The objects of XRF study are polycrystalline samples.
An x-ray machine is designed to convert electrical energy into x-rays. The structure of an X-ray machine depends on its function, but in general it consists of a radiation source, a power supply, a control system and peripherals.
How does an X-ray machine work?
The device is usually powered from an AC power supply of 126 or 220 V. However, modern X-ray units operate on DC at a significantly higher voltage. In this regard, the power supply includes a transformer (or system of transformers) and a current rectifier (sometimes there may be no rectifier - if the power of the device is low). A radiation generator is an X-ray tube, one or more.
The control system is a switchgear, that is, a control panel that regulates the operation of the entire installation. In addition, the apparatus includes a tripod (system of tripods) on which the radiation generator is mounted. The operating principle of the installation is as follows. Alternating current from the mains is supplied to the primary winding of the transformer. A higher voltage is removed from its secondary winding and supplied to the emitter directly (half-wave installations) or through a rectifier - kenotron. The heating of the cathode filament of the X-ray tube regulates its operation. In this case, no more than 1% of the energy supplied to the tube is converted into radiation, the rest turns into heat, first of all, the anode heats up. In order to avoid its damage from overheating, either refractory materials are used (tungsten, molybdenum), or a special cooling system is designed (water cooling, rotating anode). Modern X-ray units are equipped with special devices to stabilize the current and protect the emitter from overload. In addition, a system is installed to protect others from excess radiation (as well as from high voltage current).
X-ray tube device
An X-ray tube is an electric vacuum device with a source of electron radiation (cathode) and a target in which they are decelerated (anode). The high-voltage voltage for heating the cathode is supplied through a negative high-voltage cable from a filament transformer, which is located in the generator device. The heated spiral of the cathode, when high voltage is applied to the X-ray tube, begins to emit an accelerating flow of electrons, and then they sharply slow down on the tungsten plate of the anode, which leads to the appearance of X-rays.
Working principle of X-ray tube
Figure 1 - Diagram of an X-ray tube for structural analysis: 1 - metal anode cup (usually grounded); 2 – beryllium windows for X-ray emission; 3 – thermionic cathode; 4 – glass flask, isolating the anode part of the tube from the cathode; 5 – cathode terminals, to which the filament voltage is supplied, as well as high (relative to the anode) voltage; 6 – electrostatic electron focusing system; 7 – input (anti-cathode); 8 – pipes for inlet and outlet of running water cooling the inlet glass.
The area of the anode where electrons fall is called the focus. Modern X-ray tubes usually have two focuses: large and small. In the anode, over 95% of the electron energy is converted into thermal energy, heating the anode to 2000°C or more. For this reason, as the exposure duration increases, the permissible power decreases.
The X-ray diagnostic tube is placed in a lead casing, which is filled with transformer oil. The casing has holes for connecting high-voltage cables and an exit window through which the radiation beam is output. To minimize the dose of x-ray radiation in modern x-ray machines, for example FMC, a colimation device is attached to the exit window. In order to prevent damage to the anode of the X-ray tube, the latter must rotate; for this purpose, an anode rotation device is placed at the bottom of the X-ray tube casing.
Widely used in modern medical practice. With their help, the diagnosis and treatment of various diseases is carried out. As for the work of diagnostic models themselves, these are devices that allow non-invasive assessment of the condition internal organs and musculoskeletal tissues body.
The image is formed on based on the varying degrees of absorption of rays by the patient’s internal tissues and is called a radiograph. Can be displayed asspecial film, and on a computer (for digital models).
The x-ray clearly shows the internal organs and bones. In order to more clearly visualize individual organs and tissues, a contrast substance is used, which makes it possible to more accurately diagnose existing pathologies.
How does an x-ray machine work?
The X-ray machine contains the following parts and components:
- ABOUT bottom or several emitter tubes generating X-rays;
- A power supply device that supplies the device with electricity (with its help, radiation parameters are regulated);
- A device that converts x-ray radiation into an image that can be visualized;
- Switchgear (device control unit);
- Tripods through which the installation is controlled;
- Radiation protection equipment.
The X-ray machine has a fairly thick lead casing that performs a protective function. This metal absorbs X-rays well, ensuring maximum safety for medical staff.
The principle of operation of the X-ray unit
The operating principle of the X-ray machine is based on supplying voltage to the control panel to adjust the radiation strength, and then to the main transformer, where it is generated and irradiation Rays , penetrating through the area of study, they end up on the input screen, causing it to glow. Under the influence of this radiation, the photocathode knocks out electrons, as a result, photoelectrons accelerated by the electric field enter the output small screen, on which the electronic image is converted into a light one.
A feature of most modern X-ray machines is the use of electron-optical converters or amplifiers to minimize radiation exposure to the patient and staff.
Types of X-ray machines
- Depending on the purpose, all X-ray units are divided into therapeutic and diagnostic. The latter are in turn divided into:
Diagnostic devices use a large current passing through the emitter tube and a small voltage. In contrast, therapeutic devices use low current and high voltage. X-ray machines also differ in the type of power supply to the emitter tube.
X-ray machines (synonym: X-ray installations) are devices for producing and using x-ray radiation for technical and medical purposes. Depending on their purpose, medical X-ray machines are divided into diagnostic and therapeutic. According to the conditions in which they are subject to operation, X-ray machines are divided into stationary, mobile and portable.
Stationary X-ray machines, both diagnostic (Fig. 1) and therapeutic (Fig. 2), are intended for constant use in a specially adapted room - an X-ray room (see). Mobile X-ray devices, depending on the conditions of use, are divided into ward ones (Fig. 3), adapted for movement within a medical institution for the purpose of X-ray examination of patients directly in the wards, and portable ones, designed for use outside the medical institution. Mobile X-ray devices also include devices (RUM-4) designed for work in field conditions (Fig. 4). They are usually installed and transported on specially adapted types of vehicles, have autonomous power supply and a room for deployment, as well as their own darkroom. In peacetime conditions, mobile X-ray units are used in specially equipped vehicles, railway cars and on ships of the sea and river fleet (the so-called ship X-ray units). There are also mobile X-ray machines, placed in special storage boxes and transported on any type of sprung transport.
Field X-ray devices are subject to a number of special requirements arising from unfavorable and difficult transportation conditions, climatic conditions and the need for frequent installation and dismantling of equipment. In particular, the storage boxes must be sufficiently sealed to protect the equipment from dust and moisture. The individual parts of the X-ray machine must be securely fastened to ensure that the X-ray machine can be transported on sprung (usually automobile) vehicles on highways and dirt roads without damaging parts of the X-ray machine. Fluctuations in ambient temperature within the range from 40 to -40° should not affect the quality of operation of the X-ray machine when stored and transported under these conditions. Installation and dismantling of the X-ray machine must be carried out by maintenance personnel within half an hour without the use of special tools.
In peacetime, field-type X-ray devices can be used for mass examinations (see Fluorography), as well as for X-ray diagnostic work in remote areas.
Portable X-ray machines (Fig. 5) are designed to perform the simplest types of X-ray examinations in emergency and emergency care, as well as home care. They are small-sized, lightweight, fit into two small suitcases and are usually suitable for carrying by 1-2 people.
There are many types of X-ray machines designed for different purposes. The operating power of manufactured X-ray devices is determined by the product of the secondary voltage (generation voltage in kilovolts) by the current (in milliamps) passing through the X-ray tube (see) per second.
The voltage and current ranges of X-ray devices depending on their purpose are given in the table.
The X-ray machine consists of the following main components.
1. A high-voltage device, including a high-voltage transformer (the so-called main transformer), an X-ray tube filament transformer, and a system that rectifies the current supplied to the X-ray tube (in low-power devices, a rectifier device may be absent).
2. X-ray generator - X-ray tube.
3. Switchgear - control panel that regulates the operating modes of the device.
4. A tripod or groups of stands for mounting an X-ray tube, equipped with devices for installing or positioning patients during certain types of X-ray examination and treatment, as well as radiation protection equipment.
Schematically, the principle of operation of the X-ray machine is that the voltage of the electrical network is supplied to the control panel, in which it is regulated using an autotransformer and supplied to the primary winding of the main transformer. As a result of the difference in the number of turns of the primary and secondary windings of the main transformer, the voltage in it increases sharply and is supplied to the X-ray tube directly (so-called half-wave X-ray machines) or through a rectifying device (kenotrons, selenium rectifiers). The current passing through the X-ray tube is controlled by the degree of incandescence of its cathode filament.
Modern X-ray machines are equipped with very sophisticated devices to stabilize the voltage and current of the X-ray tube, as well as to protect it from possible overloads. In addition to complex relay devices for regulating exposure time, diagnostic devices are equipped with automatic switches for operating modes of the X-ray machine, which is necessary, for example, when quickly switching from the X-ray mode to the image mode and back. In addition, all modern X-ray machines have a protection system against unused X-ray radiation and against high voltage electric shock.
Based on the nature of protection against high-voltage electric shock, a distinction is made between block devices, in which the high-voltage device, together with the X-ray tube, is enclosed in a common grounded metal casing, and cable X-ray machines, in which the high-voltage wires are enclosed in insulated high-voltage cables, and the tube and the main transformer are enclosed in insulated high-voltage cables. in metal grounded casings. Block devices are usually used for mobile and portable X-ray devices, and cable devices are used for stationary ones.
Diagnostic X-ray machines are equipped with devices for tomography (see), kymography, electrokymography and other special research methods, as well as an image intensifier (see Electro-optical X-ray image intensifier) (Fig. 6), allowing for X-ray filming, television transmission of X-ray images and providing high image brightness with a significant reduction in radiation exposure.
To study individual phases of fast-flowing processes, there are special X-ray devices that allow X-ray photography at shutter speeds of thousandths of a second. This is achieved not by increasing the power (and therefore the size) of X-ray machines, but by using a system of capacitors that are charged from a relatively low-power transformer to the required voltage and then, at the right moment, instantly discharged onto the X-ray tube (so-called pulsed X-ray machines). In addition, there are adaptations to conventional diagnostic X-ray machines in the form of attachments that make it possible to photograph physiologically moving objects (lungs, heart) in a predetermined phase of activity, for example, in the inhalation or exhalation phase or in a certain phase of cardiac activity.
Therapeutic X-ray machines are used for radiation therapy.
With the introduction into clinical practice of artificial radioactive isotopes and various types of charged particle accelerators, linear accelerators, betatrons, synchrotrons, synchrophasotrons, etc., the role of x-ray therapy itself has somewhat narrowed, and currently it is used for radiation exposure to pathological foci of a relatively shallow location.
There are therapeutic X-ray devices not only for static, but also for so-called mobile irradiation (methods of rotational and convergent X-ray therapy).
Depending on the depth of the location of the irradiated lesion, devices are used for superficial X-ray therapy (Fig. 7) and for static deep therapy (Fig. 2).
In addition, X-ray devices are produced for rotational (Fig. 8) and convergent (Fig. 9) x-ray therapy, in which during radiation exposure the tube automatically moves along a predetermined path so that the main radiation beam is constantly directed at the pathological focus, and the surrounding his tissues and skin area were exposed to the rays alternately. This allows, while sparing the skin and healthy tissue, to deliver larger doses of X-ray radiation to the lesion than with static irradiation methods.
Modern therapeutic X-ray machines, like diagnostic ones, are equipped with a number of special devices and devices that automate their operation. Along with therapy devices with conventional automatic time relays, there are X-ray machines in which the time relay is replaced by a dose relay, which is an integral dosimeter that automatically turns off the high voltage when a predetermined radiation dose is reached. In addition, the set of therapeutic X-ray devices includes special sets of tubes, diaphragms that limit the irradiation field, and filters that filter out the softer part of the radiation and make the working beam more uniform.
See also X-ray technology, X-ray examination, X-ray therapy.
Rice. 1. Stationary diagnostic X-ray machine type RUM-5.
Rice. 2. X-ray apparatus type RUM-11 for static deep radiotherapy.
Rice. 3. Ward X-ray machine.
Rice. 4. General view of the RUM-4 X-ray machine.
Rice. 5. Portable X-ray machine.
Rice. 6. Electron-optical converter (EOC) with a mirror for visual observation, a movie camera and a transmitting television camera.
Rice. 7. X-ray apparatus type RUM-7 for skin and contact radiotherapy.
Rice. 8. X-ray apparatus for rotational radiotherapy.
Rice. 9. X-ray apparatus for convergent radiotherapy.
X-ray machines are devices for obtaining and using it in medicine and technology. Medical X-ray devices are divided by purpose into diagnostic (Fig. 1) and therapeutic (Fig. 2), and according to operating conditions - into stationary, mobile and portable. Stationary X-ray machines are located in special ones. Mobile X-ray machines come in two types: collapsible, designed for traveling work (Fig. 3), and ward-mounted (Fig. 4) - for x-ray diagnostic assistance in hospitals at the patient’s bedside. Portable X-ray machines (Fig. 5) are used to carry out simple X-ray examinations at home (the domestic portable device RU-560 with all accessories fits into two suitcases and has a total weight of about 45 kg). The range of voltages and currents of X-ray machines, depending on their purpose, is given in the table.
The X-ray machine is designed as follows: high voltage (see) is supplied from a step-up transformer (the so-called main transformer), to the secondary winding of which the tube is connected either directly (in low-power portable and mobile devices) or through a rectifier device - a kenotron or a semiconductor valve (see Rectifiers). The filament circuit of the X-ray tube cathode is powered from a step-down filament transformer. Since the anode of the X-ray tube is usually grounded and the cathode is at high voltage, the filament transformer has high-voltage insulation. The high-voltage circuit elements of an X-ray machine are usually placed in a grounded housing and connected to the electrodes of the protective X-ray tube using high-voltage cables (cable X-ray machines). In so-called block devices, the high-voltage part together with the tube is placed in a metal casing filled with mineral insulating oil.
High voltage is usually regulated using an autotransformer (q.v.) connected to the primary circuit of the main transformer. A special switch connected to the various taps of the autotransformer allows you to change the voltage smoothly or stepwise on the primary and, consequently, on the secondary winding of the main transformer. The filament current of the X-ray tube is set using a rheostat connected to the circuit of the primary winding of the filament transformer. The anode current of the tube depends on the magnitude of the filament current, which is determined by the voltage of the electrical network: a change in the network voltage, for example, by 5% changes the anode current by 2 times. The voltage of the electrical network drops when the X-ray machine is turned on, and therefore, to stabilize the filament of the tube, it is necessary to install a transformer (compensator) or a special ferro-resonant stabilizer. An autotransformer with switches, a rheostat for adjusting the filament current, control devices, voltage stabilization systems and protection against overload and short circuit make up the low-voltage part of the X-ray machine and are located in a special control panel. The device is usually turned on in stages: first the mains voltage is turned on, then the heating of the X-ray tube and kenotron and, finally, the high voltage. Disabling is done in reverse order. The X-ray apparatus also includes a tripod (or group of tripods) for attaching the X-ray tube, devices for fixing patients during research or treatment, X-ray screens (see) and equipment for the subject and the doctor. X-ray machines are equipped with special devices (time relays) to automatically turn off the high voltage after a specified exposure. Therapeutic X-ray machines use electromechanical relays with a maximum shutter speed of 10-30 minutes, which are driven by a small electric motor. Portable and mobile diagnostic X-ray machines use manual relays actuated by a spring, while stationary ones use capacitor relays with a minimum delay of about 0.01 sec.
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An X-ray machine is a device that is widely used in modern medicine to study and diagnose various ailments. It is necessary for access to human internal organs. Thanks to the X-ray machine, the doctor receives a picture of the internal structure of the body that interests him. The photograph is projected onto film. Working with X-rays is a non-invasive medical examination, meaning no foreign body penetration is required. Despite the fact that this device is widely used in hospitals and clinics, few people know how it works.
Let's find out what an X-ray machine is, the operating principle of this device, and what it means for medicine.
X-ray machine - what is it?
An X-ray machine is a device that converts ordinary electrical energy into X-ray radiation. There are different types of X-ray machines, for example:
. Angiograph;Fluorograph;
X-ray mammograph;
Ward X-ray machine;
Dental X-ray machine;
Operating X-ray machine;
X-ray computed tomograph;
And others.
As we can see, today there are many types of X-ray machines. Depending on the organ being studied, devices with different designs and operating principles are used. However, a classic general-purpose X-ray device, the operating principle of which we will consider in this article, consists of a control system, a power supply, a radiated structure, and also peripherals. Depending on the functionality of the device, it may also include devices for recording images or visualizing the inside of the body part being examined.
The principle of operation of the X-ray machine
A classic X-ray machine is powered through an electrical network, the maximum voltage of which is 220 V. But some X-ray systems developed in our time require significantly more electricity. Such installations, in addition to the power supply, contain a transformer and a rectifier for current.
The X-ray tube is the main element of radiation that generates it. The device also contains a control system with which a specialist controls the operation of the X-ray unit.
The material through which X-ray radiation occurs is current, therefore, without a powerful electrical network, the operation of the device is impossible. Thus, current from the electrical network passes through the primary processing stage. This stage occurs in the transformer winding. After this, a secondary processing stage occurs quite quickly, during which high voltage is released. It reaches the kenotron - this is a current rectifier, after which the voltage enters the X-ray tube.
The X-ray tube is located in a firmly sealed vessel. At one end of the tube is the cathode, and at the other is the anode. When the voltage through the transformer enters the X-ray field, the cathode and anode hit and then brake sharply. In this case, bremsstrahlung occurs, that is, X-rays are generated.
The entire process described above occurs in a split second. Thus, a picture appears on the picture, as if illuminating the inside of the required part of the body and shows the condition of the organ. This is how an X-ray machine works, the operating principle of which is described above.
Importance of X-ray machine for medicine
In modern medicine, without an X-ray machine, chaos and disorder would ensue, because the diagnosis of many diseases would be difficult, if not completely impossible. Only thanks to the X-ray machine has mankind been able to cure many diseases. Today this device is used for two procedures:
1. Radiography is an internal, but nevertheless non-invasive study of an object. Thanks to x-rays, the image is transferred to photographic film;2. Fluoroscopy - consists in the fact that the image of the object under study falls on a special screen. Thus, the image moves, which is impossible with radiography.
Now that you know how the X-ray machine works, you will not worry about the procedures associated with it.
Like many of humanity's greatest discoveries, X-rays were invented completely by accident.
In 1895, a German physicist named Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923) made the discovery while experimenting with an electron beam in a gas discharge tube. Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen noticed that the fluorescent screen in his laboratory began to glow when the electron beam was turned on. This answer in itself was not so surprising and the scientist knew that fluorescent material usually glows in response to electromagnetic radiation, but the discharge tube was surrounded by heavy black cardboard. In theory, this would block most of the radiation, but not the X-rays.
Physicist Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen placed various objects between a gas discharge tube and a screen, and the screen still glowed. Finally, he placed his hand in front of the device and saw the silhouette of his bones projected onto the fluorescent screen. Immediately after discovering the X-rays themselves, he discovered the principle of how X-rays work.
The scientist's remarkable discovery led to one of the most important medical advances in human history.
X-ray technology allows doctors to see directly through human tissue to examine broken bones, cavities and swallowed objects with incredible ease.
Modified procedures may be used to examine softer tissues such as the lungs, blood vessels, or intestines.
In this article, we will learn how x-rays and x-ray radiation work. As it turns out, the basic process is actually very simple.
X-rays are basically the same as visible light rays. Both are wave-like forms of electromagnetic energy carried by particles called photons.
The difference between X-rays and visible light rays is the energy level of the individual photons. This is also expressed as the wavelength of the rays.
Our eyes are sensitive to a certain wavelength of visible light, but not to shorter wavelengths where the energy is higher. Light waves are longer wavelengths of radio waves with lower energy.
Visible light photons and X-ray photons are both produced by the movement of electrons in atoms. Electrons occupy different energy levels or orbits around the nucleus of an atom. When an electron moves to a lower orbit, it must release some energy. It releases additional energy in the form of a photon. The energy of a photon depends on how far the electron has jumped between orbits.
When a photon collides with another atom, the atom can absorb the photon's energy, boosting the electron to a higher level. To do this, the energy level of the photon must correspond to the difference in energy between the two electron positions. If not, then the photon cannot move electrons between orbits. The atoms that make up the tissue of the human body are very good at absorbing visible light photons. The energy level of a photon corresponds to the various energy differences between electronic positions. Radio waves don't have enough energy to move electrons between orbits in large atoms, so they pass through most things. X-rays also pass through most things, but for the opposite reason: they have too much energy.
Applications of X-ray
The most important contribution of X-rays was in the world of medicine, but they played a decisive role in a number of other fields. X-rays play a key role in research related to the theory of quantum mechanics, crystallography and cosmology. In the industrial world, X-ray scanners are often used to detect minute cracks in heavy metal equipment. Scanners based on this effect have become standard equipment in airport security. practiced in archaeology, agriculture, space exploration, and in everyday life.
However, the widest use is in medicine.
Soft tissue in the body is made up of smaller atoms and therefore does not absorb photons well. The calcium atoms that make up bones are much larger, so they absorb X-rays better.
How does X-ray work?
The basis of the X-ray machine is a glass vacuum tube of the gas-discharge type with two electrodes, a cathode and an anode, which are located inside. 
The cathode is a heated conductor. Heating occurs through a special filament. The heat helps knock electrons out of the cathode, and the positively charged tungsten anode attracts electrons in the vacuum tube. The voltage difference between the cathode and anode is extremely large, so that electrons fly through the tube with great force. When an accelerating electron collides with a tungsten atom, it knocks out a free electron in one of the atom's lower orbits. An electron in a higher orbit immediately moves to a lower energy level, releasing its additional energy in the form of a photon.
By controlling the direction of movement and speed of the photon, the vacuum tube emits radio waves at a frequency between ultraviolet and gamma radiation with a wavelength from 10 −7 to 10 −12 meters.
The entire mechanism is surrounded by a thick lead shield. This keeps the X-rays from being emitted in all directions. A small window in the shield allows some of the photons to be emitted into a narrow beam. The beam in an X-ray machine passes through a series of filters on its way to the patient. 
Cameras on the other side of the patient record the sample as it passes through the patient's body. The camera uses the same technology as a regular camera, but the X-ray image is different from a regular camera. As a rule, doctors store the film as a negative. That is, areas that are exposed to more light appear darker, and areas that are exposed to less light appear lighter. Hard material, like bone, appears white, while softer material appears black or gray. Doctors can use various ways to control the operation of the X-ray machine by changing the intensity of the image beam. also uses this effect.
Contrast agent
Most soft tissues do not appear clearly on a regular x-ray. In order to focus internally on organs or view the blood vessels that make up the circulatory system, doctors must inject contrast media into the body.
Contrast media are liquids that absorb X-rays more effectively than surrounding tissue. In order to view organs in the digestive and endocrine system, the patient swallows a mixture of contrast agents, typically a mixture of barium. If doctors want to look at blood vessels or other elements in the circulatory system, they inject contrast agents into the patient's bloodstream.
A contrast agent is often used in conjunction with a fluoroscope. In fluoroscopy, X-rays pass through the body onto a fluorescent screen, creating a moving image. Doctors can use fluoroscopy to follow the passage of contrast media through a person. Doctors may also record the X-ray image on video.
Are x-rays harmful?
X-rays are a wonderful addition to the world of medicine: they allow doctors to look inside a patient without any surgery at all. It is much easier and safer to look at a broken bone using X-rays than to use an invasive method. 
But are x-rays harmful? In the early days of X-ray science, many doctors exposed patients and themselves to beams for long periods of time. Eventually, doctors and patients began to develop radiation sickness, and the medical community knew something was wrong.
The problem is that X-rays are a form of ionizing radiation.
The electrical charge of the ion can lead to unnatural chemical reactions within cells. Among other things, the charge can break DNA strands. A cell with a broken strand of DNA will either die or the DNA will begin to mutate. If many cells die, various diseases can develop in the body. If the DNA mutates, the cell can become cancerous and the cancer can spread. If the mutation occurs in a sperm or egg, it can lead to birth defects. Because of all these risks, doctors use X-rays taking into account certain standards.
Even with these risks, X-ray scanning is still a safer option than surgery. X-ray machines are an invaluable tool in medicine, as well as an asset in security and scientific research. They are truly one of the most useful and...