Sequence of information transfer. The process of transferring genetic information
Every person constantly encounters information, and so often that not everyone can explain the meaning of the concept itself. Information is information that is transmitted from one person to another using various means of communication.
There are various ways to transfer data, which will be discussed below.
How information is transmitted
In the process of human development, there is a constant improvement in the mechanisms by which information is transmitted. Methods for storing and transmitting information are quite varied, since there are several systems in which data is exchanged.
There are 3 directions in the data transmission system: transmission from person to person, from person to computer and from computer to computer.
- Initially, information is obtained through the senses - vision, hearing, smell, taste and touch. To transmit information over a short distance, there is a language that allows you to communicate the received information to another person. In addition, you can convey something to another person by writing a letter or during a performance, as well as when talking on the phone. Despite the fact that the last example uses a communication device, that is, an intermediate device, it allows information to be transmitted in direct contact.
- To transfer data from a person to a computer, it must be entered into the device’s memory. Information can take different forms, which will be discussed further.
- Transfer from computer to computer occurs through intermediate devices (flash card, Internet, disk, etc.).
Data processing
After receiving the necessary information, it becomes necessary to store and transmit it. Methods of transmitting and processing information clearly represent the stages of human development.
- At the beginning of its development, data processing involved transferring it to paper using ink, pen, pen, etc. However, the disadvantage of this processing method was the unreliability of storage. If we mention methods of storing and transmitting information, storage on paper has a certain period, which is determined by the service life of the paper, as well as the conditions of its use.
- The next stage is mechanical information technology, which uses a typewriter, telephone, and voice recorder.
- Further, the mechanical information processing system was replaced by an electrical one, because methods of transmitting information are constantly being improved. Such means include electric typewriters, portable voice recorders, and copying machines.
Types of information
The types and methods of transmitting information differ depending on its content. This can be textual information presented orally and in writing, as well as symbolic, musical and graphic. Modern types of data also include video information.
A person deals with each of these forms of information storage every day.
Means of information transmission
The means of transmitting information can be oral and written.
- Oral means include speeches, meetings, presentations, and reports. When using this method, you can count on a quick reaction from your opponent. The use of additional nonverbal means during a conversation can enhance the effect of speech. Such means include facial expressions and gestures. However, at the same time, information received orally does not have long-term effect.
- Written media are articles, reports, letters, notes, printouts, etc. In this case, one cannot count on a quick reaction from the public. However, the advantage is that the information received can be re-read, thereby assimilating the information.
Methods of presenting information
As you know, information can be presented in several forms, which, however, does not change its content. For example, a house can be represented as a word or a graphic representation.
Methods of presenting and transmitting information can be depicted as the following list:
- Text information. It allows you to provide the most complete information, but may contain a large amount of data, which contributes to its poor assimilation.
- A graphic image is a graph, diagram, diagram, histogram, cluster, etc. They allow you to briefly present information, establish logical connections, cause-and-effect relationships. In addition, information in graphical form allows you to find solutions to various issues.
- The presentation is a colorful, visual example of the way information is presented. It can combine both textual data and their graphical display, that is, various types of information presentation.
Concept of communication
Communication is a system of interaction between several objects. In a generalized sense, this is the transfer of information from one object to another. Communication is the key to the success of an organization.
Methods of transmitting information (communication) perform the following functions: organizational, interactive, expressive, incentive, perceptual.
The organizational function provides a system of relationships between employees; interactive allows you to shape the mood of those around you; expressive colors the mood of others; incentive calls for action; perceptual allows different interlocutors to understand each other.
Modern methods of transmitting information
The most modern methods of transmitting information include the following.
The Internet contains a huge amount of information. This allows you to gain a lot of knowledge for yourself without bothering with studying books and other paper sources. However, in addition to this, it contains methods and means of transmitting information similar to historically older models. This is an analogue of traditional mail - electronic mail, or e-mail. The convenience of using this type of mail lies in the speed of letter transmission and the elimination of stages of delivery. Today, almost everyone has an email address, and communication with many organizations is maintained precisely through this method of transmitting information.
GSM is a digital cellular communication standard that is widely used everywhere. In this case, spoken speech is encoded and transmitted through a converter to another subscriber. All the necessary information is placed in a SIM card, which is inserted into the mobile device. Today, the presence of this means of communication is a necessity as a means of communication.
WAP allows you to view web pages with information in any form on your mobile phone screen: text, numeric, symbolic, graphic. The image on the screen can be adapted to the screen of a mobile phone or have a look similar to a computer image.
Modern methods of transmitting information also include GPRS, which allows packet data transfer to a mobile device. Thanks to this means of communication, it is possible to continuously use packet data simultaneously by a large number of people at the same time. Among the properties of GPRS are high data transfer speeds, payment only for transmitted information, great possibilities of use, and compatibility parameters with other networks.
The Internet, through the use of a modem, allows you to obtain high speed information transfer at a low cost of such access. A large number of Internet providers creates a high level of competition between them.
Satellite communication allows you to access the Internet via satellite. The advantage of this method is low cost, high data transfer speed, but among the disadvantages there is a noticeable one - the dependence of the signal on weather conditions.
Possibilities of using information transmission media
As new means of information transmission emerge, opportunities arise for unconventional use of various devices. For example, the possibility of video conferencing and video calling has sparked the idea of using optical devices in medicine. In this way, information about the pathological organ is obtained through direct observation during surgery. When using this method of obtaining information, there is no need to make a large incision; the operation can be performed with minimal damage to the skin.
Transmission channel is a set of technical means and propagation media that ensures the transmission of electromagnetic signals, limited in power, in a certain frequency range or at a certain transmission speed.
A distinction is made between discrete and continuous (analogue) messages.
Rice. 1 Block diagram of the discrete information transmission channel
Rice. 2 Block diagram of the analog information transmission channel
In Fig. 1 and Fig. 2:
IS – source of the message (speech signal, information-measuring sensor, computer, etc.);
PSS– converter of a non-electrical quantity into an electrical one;
Transmitter– converts the transmitted message into a signal that can be transmitted over a communication line (LC). In digital information transmission systems, the transmitter performs time sampling and quantization of the signal by level;
TO– the encoder converts discrete messages into a sequence of code pulses;
Maud– the modulator changes the parameter of the physical process (information carrier), in accordance with the current values of the transmitted signal (modulating signal);
G– carrier vibration generator;
NE–nonlinear element;
US- signal amplifier;
Fper– transmitter filter;
Receiver– ensures the separation of the transmitted message from the signal into the modulating signal;
FPR– receiver filter;
US- signal amplifier;
Dem– the demodulator converts the modulated signal into a modulating signal;
Dec– the decoder reconstructs a discrete message using the output signal of a discrete channel;
Aux.reg– the auxiliary register stores data while the message is processed.
In analog transmission channels, the demodulated signal, as a rule, immediately reaches the message recipient.
The signal can be received with or without frequency conversion;
IF– frequency converter;
Get– auxiliary (special) generator;
Cm– the mixer multiplies the input and heterodyne signals;
D– the detector (demodulator) converts the modulated signal with the transfer of the spectrum of the modulating signal from the high frequency region to the low frequency region;
In discrete information transmission systems, two methods of message recovery are used - element-by-element reception and reception as a whole.
In element-by-element reception, the elements of the received signal corresponding to the code symbols are analyzed. In this case, a sequence of code symbols appears at the output of the demodulator, which then restores the discrete message.
When receiving a signal as a whole, the complete code word is analyzed and identified with a particular message.
Receivers analyze the input signal and make a decision about the transmitted message. The part of the receiver where these operations occur is called the decision circuit. In element-by-element reception, the functions of the decision circuit are performed by a demodulator and a decoder.
IP– source of interference;
PS– message recipient – the consumer or device for which the message is intended;
Modem– combination of modulator and demodulator;
Codec– combination of encoder and decoder;
PM– A communication line is a medium used to transmit signals. The following are used as communication lines: wires, cable cores, rails, space in which electromagnetic waves propagate, optical fiber.
Coding is the transformation of a transmitted message into a message or signal that can be transmitted.
Before starting to convey an idea, the sender must encode it using symbols (words, intonation or gestures). This encoding turns an idea into a message. The sender must also select a channel compatible with the type of characters used for encoding. Commonly known channels include speech and written communications, electronic communications including computer networks, e-mail, videotapes and video conferencing. If the channel is not suitable for the physical embodiment of the symbols, transmission is not possible. The exchange of information will not be effective if the communication channel does not correspond to the emerging idea. It is desirable that the choice of means of transmitting a message is not limited to one channel. Of course, the process of transmitting information becomes more complicated, since the sender has to establish the sequence of using these means and determine the time intervals in the sequence of information transmission. However, communicating information using, for example, oral and written media is usually more effective than, say, exchanging written information alone.
BROADCAST
In the third stage, the sender uses a channel to deliver a message (an encoded idea or set of ideas) to the recipient. As soon as the transmission of a message or signal has begun, the communication process goes beyond the control of the medium or person who sent it. Once sent, a message cannot be returned.
From the moment the information is transmitted, the sending stage ends and the stage of receiving the transmitted information and understanding its meaning begins. The channel transmits a message to the receiver. If the message's carriers (code signs) or forms change in the channel, then the reception is considered unsuccessful. The person to whom the message was addressed is called the recipient. This is another key role performed by the participant in interpersonal communication in order for the process to take place. The role of the recipient is not only to record the receipt of the message, but also to decode this message into a meaning that is understandable and acceptable to him.
DECODING
Decoding is the translation of the sender's symbols into the recipient's thoughts. It includes the perception (the fact of receiving) the message by the recipient, its interpretation (how it was understood) and evaluation (what and how it was received). If the symbols chosen by the sender have exactly the same meaning for the recipient, the latter will know what exactly the sender meant, when his idea was formulated.
However, there are reasons why the recipient may give the message a slightly different meaning than the one intended by the sender.
Elements of the communication process
There are 4 basic elements:
· Sender, the person collecting and transmitting information.
· Message, information encoded using symbols.
· Channel, means of transmitting information.
· Recipient, the person to whom the information is addressed and who interprets it.
The sender and recipient go through several interconnected stages when exchanging information. Their task is to compose a message that must be transmitted through communication channels in such a way that both parties understand and share the original idea. This process is far from easy since each stage is also a point at which the meaning can be distorted or completely lost
Question 65. Competition: its essence, types and role in the functioning of the market. Types of competition.
There are 4 most common methods used in developing cost estimates for any type of activity that is part of the incentive package, for example, advertising:
1) The calculation method is “from cash”, that is, as much as the enterprise’s budget allows (according to the chief accountant).
2) The calculation method is “as a percentage of the sales amount” or the selling price of the product (for example, 2% of the sales amount).
3) Competitive parity method, when a company sets its budget level at the level of its competitors' budgets.
4) Calculation method “based on goals and objectives.” This method requires that incentive budgets be based on: the development of specific goals; identifying the tasks to be solved to achieve these goals; cost estimates for solving these problems.
The sum of all these costs will give an approximate figure for budgetary allocations for stimulation.
The advantage of this method is that it is based on the relationship between the amount of costs, the level of advertising contacts, the intensity of testing and the regularity of using the product.
The choice of certain means (elements) of the incentive complex is influenced by many factors:
1. Nature of incentives:
b) ability to persuade (multiple repetition);
c) expressiveness - catchiness (although it is precisely this that can distract
2. Personal selling has three characteristics:
- personal nature, that is, live communication;
- the formation of relationships from formal to friendship;
- encouragement to respond.
Personal selling is the most expensive means of influence.
3. Sales promotion- activities during which a targeted set of means of influence is used - coupons, competitions, bonuses...
These products have three characteristic qualities:
- attractiveness and information content;
- incentive to make purchases;
- invitation to make purchases.
The company resorts to sales promotion means to achieve a stronger and faster reaction from the buyer (events are short-term in nature).
4. Propaganda(“Publicity”/Publicity) is built on:
Credibility;
Wide coverage of buyers;
Showiness.
5. Public relations aims to maintain a reputation for reliability and commitment to all participants in the company's activities.
The transfer of information occurs from the source to the recipient (receiver) of information. Source information can be anything: any object or phenomenon of living or inanimate nature. The process of transmitting information takes place in a certain material environment that separates the source and recipient of information, which is called channel transfer of information. Information is transmitted through the channel in the form of a certain sequence of signals, symbols, signs, which are called message. Recipient information is an object that receives a message, resulting in certain changes in its state. All of the above is schematically depicted in the figure.
Transfer of information
A person receives information from everything that surrounds him through the senses: hearing, sight, smell, touch, taste. A person receives the greatest amount of information through hearing and vision. Sound messages are perceived by ear - acoustic signals in a continuous medium (most often in the air). Vision perceives light signals that convey images of objects.
Not every message is informative for a person. For example, a message in an unknown language, although transmitted to a person, does not contain information for him and cannot cause adequate changes in his condition.
An information channel can either be of a natural nature (atmospheric air through which sound waves are transmitted, sunlight reflected from observed objects) or be artificially created. In the latter case we are talking about technical means of communication.
Technical information transmission systems
The first technical means of transmitting information over a distance was the telegraph, invented in 1837 by the American Samuel Morse. In 1876, the American A. Bell invents the telephone. Based on the discovery of electromagnetic waves by the German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1886), A.S. Popov in Russia in 1895 and almost simultaneously with him in 1896 by G. Marconi in Italy, radio was invented. Television and the Internet appeared in the twentieth century.
All of the listed technical methods of information communication are based on the transmission of a physical (electrical or electromagnetic) signal over a distance and are subject to certain general laws. The study of these laws is carried out communication theory, which originated in the 1920s. Mathematical apparatus of communication theory - mathematical theory of communication, developed by the American scientist Claude Shannon.
Claude Elwood Shannon (1916–2001), USA
Claude Shannon proposed a model of the process of transmitting information through technical communication channels, represented by a diagram.
Technical information transmission system
Coding here refers to any transformation of information coming from a source into a form suitable for its transmission over a communication channel. Decoding - reverse signal sequence conversion.
The operation of such a scheme can be explained using the familiar process of talking on the phone. The source of information is the person speaking. The encoding device is a telephone handset microphone, with the help of which sound waves (speech) are converted into electrical signals. The communication channel is the telephone network (wires, switches of telephone nodes through which the signal passes). The decoding device is the handset (earphone) of the listening person - the receiver of information. Here the incoming electrical signal is converted into sound.
Modern computer information transmission systems - computer networks - work on the same principle. There is an encoding process that converts binary computer code into a physical signal of the type that is transmitted over a communication channel. Decoding involves converting the transmitted signal back into computer code. For example, when using telephone lines in computer networks, encoding-decoding functions are performed by a device called a modem.
Channel capacity and information transmission speed
Developers of technical information transmission systems have to solve two interrelated problems: how to ensure the highest speed of information transfer and how to reduce information loss during transmission. Claude Shannon was the first scientist to take on these problems and create a new science for that time - information theory.
K. Shannon determined a method for measuring the amount of information transmitted over communication channels. They introduced the concept channel capacity,as the maximum possible speed of information transfer. This speed is measured in bits per second (also kilobits per second, megabits per second).
The capacity of a communication channel depends on its technical implementation. For example, computer networks use the following means of communication:
telephone lines,
Electrical cable connection,
Fiber optic cable communication,
Radio communication.
The capacity of telephone lines is tens, hundreds of Kbps; The capacity of fiber optic lines and radio communication lines is measured in tens and hundreds of Mbit/s.
Noise, noise protection
The term “noise” refers to various types of interference that distort the transmitted signal and lead to loss of information. Such interference primarily arises for technical reasons: poor quality of communication lines, insecurity of various information streams transmitted over the same channels from each other. Sometimes, when talking on the phone, we hear noise, crackling noises that make it difficult to understand the interlocutor, or our conversation is superimposed by the conversation of completely different people.
The presence of noise leads to loss of transmitted information. In such cases, noise protection is necessary.
First of all, technical methods are used to protect communication channels from noise. For example, using shielded cable instead of bare wire; the use of various types of filters that separate the useful signal from noise, etc.
was developed by Claude Shannon coding theory, giving methods to combat noise. One of the important ideas of this theory is that the code transmitted over the communication line must be redundant. Due to this, the loss of some part of the information during transmission can be compensated. For example, if you are hard of hearing when talking on the phone, then by repeating each word twice, you have a better chance that the other person will understand you correctly.
However, the redundancy should not be too large. This will lead to delays and higher communication costs. Coding theory allows you to obtain a code that is optimal. In this case, the redundancy of the transmitted information will be the minimum possible, and the reliability of the received information will be maximum.
In modern digital communication systems, the following technique is often used to combat the loss of information during transmission. The entire message is divided into portions - packages. For each packet it is calculated check sum(sum of binary digits), which is transmitted along with this packet. At the receiving location, the checksum of the received packet is recalculated and, if it does not coincide with the original sum, the transmission of this packet is repeated. This will happen until the source and destination checksums match.
When considering the transfer of information in propaedeutic and basic computer science courses, first of all, this topic should be discussed from the position of a person as a recipient of information. The ability to obtain information from the surrounding world is the most important condition for human existence. Human sense organs are information channels of the human body that communicate between a person and the external environment. Based on this criterion, information is divided into visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, and gustatory. The rationale for the fact that taste, smell and touch provide information to a person is as follows: we remember the smells of familiar objects, the taste of familiar food, and we recognize familiar objects by touch. And the contents of our memory are stored information.
Students should be told that in the animal world the informational role of the senses differs from that of humans. The sense of smell performs an important information function for animals. The heightened sense of smell of service dogs is used by law enforcement agencies to search for criminals, detect drugs, etc. The visual and auditory perception of animals differs from that of humans. For example, it is known that bats hear ultrasound, and cats see in the dark (from a human point of view).
Within the framework of this topic, students should be able to give specific examples of the process of transmitting information, determine for these examples the source, receiver of information, and the channels used for transmitting information.
When studying computer science in high school, students should be introduced to the basic principles of technical communication theory: the concepts of encoding, decoding, information transmission speed, channel capacity, noise, noise protection. These issues can be considered within the framework of the topic “Technical means of computer networks”.
To better understand the process of information exchange and the conditions for its effectiveness, you should have an understanding of the elements and stages of the communication process.
Communication process
In the process of information exchange, one can distinguish four basic elements(Fig. 1.4):
- sender – a person who generates ideas or collects and transmits information;
- message – the actual information encoded using symbols;
- channel – a means of transmitting information;
- recipient – the person to whom the information is intended and who interprets it.
Rice. 1.4.
When exchanging information sender And recipient go through several interrelated stages. The main task of the sender– compose a message and use a channel to convey it in such a way that both parties understand and share the original idea. This is difficult, since at each stage the meaning of the message can be distorted or completely lost.
In the process of information movement, its advancement occurs, but the following stages:
- the birth of an idea;
- channel encoding and selection;
- broadcast;
- decoding;
- Feedback.
Let us consider the stages of the communication process in more detail in order to show what problems can arise at its different points (Fig. 1.5).
1. The birth of an idea. Information exchange begins with the formulation of an idea or the selection of information. In this case, the sender decides which idea or message should be the subject of exchange. Its role is to provoke and encode information with subsequent transmission to other participants in the process.
It is very important to correctly and carefully formulate your idea so that it becomes interesting and attractive to the recipient. It is important to remember that the idea has not yet been transformed into words or taken on another form in which it will serve the exchange of information. The sender only decided What exactly he wants to convey.
2. Encoding and channel selection. Before communicating an idea, the sender must encode it using symbols. For example, he may use words, intonation and gestures (body language) as symbols. This coding turns an idea into message.
The sender must also select channel compatible with character type, used for coding. Some commonly known channels include: speech, written materials, electronic communications including computer networks and email, video tapes and video conferencing. If the channel is not suitable for the physical embodiment of the symbols, transmission is not possible. If the channel is not very consistent with the idea, the exchange of information will be ineffective.
It should be remembered that the choice of communication medium should not be limited to a single channel. It is often desirable to use two or more means of communication in some combination. In this regard, the process becomes more complex, since the sender has to establish a sequence of use of these means and determine time intervals for transmitting information. However, it is believed that the simultaneous use of means of exchanging oral and written information is usually more effective than exchanging only written information. For example, if at a meeting of department heads, the head of the financial department has proposals to simplify mutual settlements, it would be more effective to present them in writing in the form of handouts, on a screen or flip chart in the form of graphs, diagrams, or videos, accompanying their demonstration with oral comments. At the same time, it is more likely that the information will be perceived, firstly, positively, secondly, completely (or to the maximum extent), and thirdly, the wishes and suggestions of interested colleagues will be promptly taken into account.
- 3. Broadcast. In the third stage, the sender uses a channel to deliver a message (an encoded idea or set of ideas) to the recipient. Here we are talking about the physical transmission of a message, which many people mistakenly take for the communication process itself. At the same time, communication is only one of the most important stages that must be passed through in order to convey an idea to another person.
- 4. Decoding. After the sender transmits a message, the recipient decodes it. Decoding is the translation of the sender’s symbols into the recipient’s thoughts. If the symbols chosen by the sender have exactly the same meaning to the recipient, the latter will know exactly what the sender had in mind when his idea was formulated. If no reaction to the idea is required, the information exchange process ends here.
- 5. Feedback. An exchange of information can be considered effective if the recipient demonstrates understanding of the idea through feedback. For example, he performed the actions that the sender expected from him.
Despite the apparent simplicity of the communication process, it rarely proceeds without interference. There are many potential barriers that stand in the way of effective communications. Factors that disrupt the purity of message transmission are commonly called “noise” in the communication process.
"Noise"- this is any factor that can disrupt the clarity of the transmission of the message at any moment in the communication process.
Sources of noise range from the complexity or imprecision of the message's language to differences in the perceptions of the people receiving it, which can alter the meaning of the encoding and decoding processes. For example, noise is said to occur when messages are poorly encoded (written unclearly) or poorly decoded (not understood), or when communication channels are ineffective (the recipient's attention is diverted from the message). The difference in organizational status between the manager and the subordinate can also be a hindrance, which also makes it difficult to convey information accurately.
Thus, noise in its essence is a barrier in the communication process.
There is always some noise in the communication process, so at each stage of the information exchange process some distortion of meaning occurs. If the noise level is high enough, there may be a noticeable loss of the meaning of the message or even a complete blocking of information exchange.
Rice. 1.5.
Thus, communication process is a sequence of actions when people communicate. Purpose of the communication process– ensuring understanding of the information being exchanged. The communication process has certain elements and occurs in stages. At each stage, “noise” (interference in communications) may occur, which can significantly reduce their effectiveness.
As noted above, the main goal of communication is the exchange of various types of information. Each enterprise is penetrated by a network of information channels that are designed to collect, analyze and systematize it. At the same time, in many cases, a manager can choose and use the most convenient channels of communication with other managers and subordinates. For example, you can discuss a problem in a personal conversation or over the phone; It is permissible to convey information to employees by writing a note or letter, or by posting a message on a notice board. The specific channel is largely determined by the nature of the message (Fig. 1.6).
Communication channels are classified according to their capacity.
Channel capacity is the amount of information that can be transmitted through it in one communication episode.
In general, communication becomes more effective when using a variety of channels, both written and oral.
The capacity of communication channels is affected by three factors:
- ability to process multiple signals simultaneously;
- the ability to provide fast, two-way feedback;
- ability to provide a personal approach to communications.
From the point of view of these possibilities, the best remedy is personal communication. Only it guarantees direct impact, transmission of multiple information signals, immediate feedback and personal approach.
Telephone communication or through other electronic means speeds up the communication process, but lacks the “presence effect”.
Personal written messages - notes, letters, comments - can also have a personal orientation, but they convey only words written on paper and cannot provide quick feedback.
Impersonal communication channels - bulletins, standard computer reports - are the smallest, their bandwidth is limited to the greatest extent.
Essentially, the effectiveness of a communication method depends on how suitable it is for the information that needs to be conveyed. In particular, research has shown that when information is ambiguous (i.e., needs clarification), oral communication is more effective than written communication. However, written communication is more effective when the information is obvious, simple and straightforward. For example, communicating work assignments to employees, informing them about decisions made, or consolidating previously reached agreements in writing.
In any case, the important question is not only which form of communication to choose, but also how to use it correctly. In table 1.1 provides some useful tips for using traditional means of communication.
|
Means of communication |
Best Application |
Terms of use |
|
|
Sending key information, registration confirmation |
|
|
Sending a finished document that requires a signature, a draft for approval, or a message to someone who doesn't have email access |
in receiving it Avoid sending personal or confidential information that others may see |
|
|
Sending lengthy and complex material or thank-you notes |
|
|
|
Transferring information that carries an emotional charge (if a personal meeting is not possible) |
|
|
|
Conveying more sensitive and sensitive information |
Schedule a meeting and come prepared to discuss issues |
- Cm.: Daft R.L. Leadership lessons.
- Cm.: Daft R.L. Leadership lessons.
- Greenberg J., Baron R. Organizational behavior: from theory to practice. M., 2004. P. 441.